It's postulated that a bi-polar form of gravity, deriving from an S-duality transformation, but ranging to less than 10^-17 cm. within our 3+1 brane, is the source of deBroglie waves. As such, it would span only about one billionth of the Bohr radius in a hydrogen atom, and thus would not conflict with the measured, or calculated, size of atomic structures. Assuming, gravity equalizes with the Standard Model forces at the supersymmetry scale (1-100 TeV/10^-17- 10^-19 cm.), as many, post 1998, extra dimension/brane models require, this bi-polar field would effectively 'smear' electrons and quarks over a much larger region, due to enormously magnified relativistic effects, such as "relativity of simultaneity". The net result would be translation of particles forward and backwards in time at their natural DeBroglie frequencies, a phenomena also known in the literature as "sync shifting".

The polarization of this intense, micro-range, gravity field would be manifested, for accelerating particles, by the subduction of Minkowskii space into the bulk at the leading edge of the particle, and the emergence of bulk space into our Minkowskii space at the trailing edge of the particle. By creating a 'deficit' of spacetime forward of an accelerated particle, and a 'surplus' of spacetime to the rear of the particle, an Alcubierre metric would be realized. In essence, the bulk would provide a 'reservoir' of 'working fluid' for these proposed micro-warps enveloping Standard Model particles, within our 3+1 brane.

By, thus, embracing the particle in a local 'free fall' frame, synchroton radiation for bound electrons, quarks in baryonic structures, and cooper pairs in superconductors, would be nullified. This implies a coordinated acceleration-nulling 'dance' between electrons and protons bound together by coulomb attraction in atomic structures. Superconductivity would be a special case wherein the dance embraces multiple nucleon partners for the cooper pairs along the crystal lattice, rather like a shuffle dance where partners are continuously being exchanged on the dance floor. Superconductivity would thus differ from its atomic equivalent only in binding energy of the partners, and the undulating, but roughly, linear trajectory of the cooper pairs.

For these micro-warps to maintain an inertial environment for charged particles, bound to one another via the Coulomb force, the micro-warp embracing each particle must, firstly, be aligned along the axis connecting the two particles. Secondly, the micro-warp's 'polarity' must be such that it cancels the angular acceleration experienced by its host particle - that is, the expanding space side of the warp must face the other particle to which it is bound by the coulomb force. Thus, for the simple hydrogen atom, the net bi-polar field, summed from the individual micro-warps enveloping each of the triad of quarks in the proton, must, on average, point its expansion side towards the orbiting electron. Likewise, the micro-warp, enveloping the orbiting electron, must, on average, align its expanding side towards the proton nucleus. It must be kept in mind that the proposed micro-warps at 10^-17 cm. would be ten million, billion times larger than a Planck string sized fundamental particle at 10^-33 centimeter.

The requirement for individual micro-warps, associated with oppositely charged particles, bound to one another in atomic structures to be polarized and aligned, implies that nature has a built in mechanism to ensure this condition. Since string theory postulates that charge originates from motion within extremely energetic Planck scale strings, it follows that the intermediate energy micro-warps should function as an interface to the source of charge. In other words, electric charge should emanate from the poles of the micro-warp. Quite reasonably more charge should be projected out of the expanding space side than the contracting side, leading to assymetric charge distribution in immediate proximity to any charged particle. This would force the expanding side of each micro-warp, associated with oppositely charged particles, to face one another, just as, for example, the side of the moon with slightly excess mass is locked facing the earth. Further from the particle, charge distribution should even out, becoming more uniform.

Since electrons typically are subjected to about one thousand, billion, billion G's of angular acceleration in atomic orbits, this acceleration neutralizing field would need to create comparable G forces, that are oppositely directed, within its 10^-17 range. It must be assumed that the loss of alignment, or synchronization, between this acceleration neutralizing field and the particle's motion coincides with either emission or absorbtion of a light quanta. But might it also be possible that there is an intermediate regime, where the energy difference is insufficient to either create, or absorb, a photon? In such a case could this proposed acceleration neutralizing field couple to the terrestrial gravity field?

The notion that our 3D universe is embedded within a higher dimensional space (bulk) would resolve the longstanding heirarchy problem by lowering the traditional Planck scale to the electroweak scale. In this scenario, gravity would equalize with the Standard Model forces in the tera-electron volt (TeV) range. At this energy it's proposed the covariant metric decomposes into its constituent elements in response to an electroweak/gravity duality. This gives birth to quantums of length (space in 3D) and time - the gravitational analogues of electric charges and magnetic monopoles in electromagnetic theory. It follows that a massive 'graviphoton', with variables of length and time becomes the quanta for this field, its coupling strength matching the electromagnetic photon's (though confined to a 10^-17 cm. range).

Since, energetically, these di-polar quanta reside at the boundary of the higher dimensional space, they should function as bi-directional graviton portals between Minkowskii space and the bulk. In analogy with the magnetic flux lines enveloping an electron, spin derived lines of 'space' flux should circulate about the time, or T-quanta, in the familiar axial di-pole configuration. At one pole gravitons (space) from the bulk would emerge into our Minkowskii space (or 3-brane), while at the opposing pole gravitons from our 3-brane would flow back into the bulk. The same result would obtain with the graviphotons, except that graviton flux would be subject to amplitude oscillation.

Since electrons typically are subjected to about one thousand billion, billion G's of angular acceleration in atomic orbits this acceleration neutralizing field would need to create comparable G forces, that are oppositely directed, within its 10^-17 cm. range. It must be assumed that the loss of phase syncronization between the acceleration neutralizing field and the particles motion coincides with either emmision or absorption of a light quanta. But might it also be possible that there is an intermediate regime, where the energy difference is insufficient to create, or absorb, a photon? In such a case could the acceleration neutralizing field couple to the terrestrial gravity field? For this to be observed at a macroscopic level a number of conditions would have to be satisfied. First, in ordinary room temperature matter the random orientation of atoms would cancel out any large scale effect. But superconductors could provide the coherent environment, where the effect would be additive. But additional conditions would still need to be satisfied. To be continued...

If this analysis is correct, future warpdrives for spacecraft may be realized by synthesizing vast quantities of these T-quanta and inducing them to behave coherently in terms of alignment and the phase of their fields. If these T-quanta were arrayed on an extended flat plate like structure, the side facing the direction of motion would funnel our 3-brane space into the bulk, while the rear facing side would expel bulk space into our 3-brane world. If this process occured at a fast enough pace a non-equilibrium state would be achieved, such that a space 'deficit' was obtained in front of the plate and a space 'surplus' was obtained behind the plate - the formula for an Alcubierre warp. In effect, the bulk would serve as a 'reservoir' of 'working fluid' for the warpdrive. This would be analogous to a double acting steam cylinder where high pressure steam pushes the piston (spacecraft) forward, while low pressure steam pulls the piston in its direction of travel. In perfect analogy, the working fluid for a steam engine (steam) originates from, and returns to, its 'bulk' reservoir - the boiler.

What difference does this mechanism have over the original warp mechanism? The expansion and contraction of the manifold in the original Alcubierre warp, and later variants, occurs entirely within Minkowskii space. The expansion and contraction of the metric is envisioned as a small scale version of the Big Bang and Big Crunch, respectively. However, the total energy of the universe from the initial quantum fluctuation through all stages of the Big Bang is required to be exactly zero - the positive mass energy within the universe being exactly cancelled by the negative gravitational potential energy of each clump of matter being attracted towards every other clump. Thus, if the expansion of the metric behind a starship is faithful to the Big Bang model, one must create an amount of mass simultaneously with the new space, such that the net energy is zero. All this matter would attract the starship towards it with the same force that the new space repels it, for a net thrust of zero. The converse situation would apply in front of the ship, again for a net pull of zero. In sum, a warp drive based on an exact analogy to the Big Bang/Big Crunch phenomenology would not work.

3+1 Mirror Brane and Matter Waves

Recent theoretical concepts^1,2 suggest that gravity is weak because it is "diluted" among several compact extra dimensions as great as 10 micrometers in size, or concentrated on a nearby 3+1 "brane", known as the "Planck brane". In these models gravity would increase exponentially in strength, starting at the upper size limit of the proposed compact dimensions, until it converges in strength with the Standard Model (SM) forces at the TeV electroweak scale (~10^-17 cm.). Thus far , searches for departures from Newtonian 1/r² gravity have come up negative at separations of 1/10 millimeter between test masses, while theoretical considerations (based on the 1987A supernova event) suggest that experimenters need to probe below 10 micrometers to find any gravitational anomaly.

Therefore, it is pertinent to ask whether such compact extra dimensions play a role in quantum processes that govern the behavior of atomic scale phenomena at an intermediate scale (~10^-8 cm.). A quick check reveals that the Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom is calculated solely on the coulombic force betweeen the nucleus and orbiting electron, precluding any significant contribution by enhanced gravity at this scale. Thus, an initial naive assumption that electrons circumvent angular acceleration (and hence synchrotron radiation emission) by following, planetary style, geodesic trajectories in an intensified gravity field, is ruled out.

However, if gravity converges in strength with the SM forces at 10^-17 cm., rather than the traditional Planck scale (10^-33 cm.), a novel form of matter, that couples gravitationally at the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, is predicted from symmetry considerations. The quanta for this matter constitutes a heavy twin of the photon, that couples gravitationally rather than via the electromagnetic force. More significantly, the metric form of the gravitational dipole field of this quanta is an exact match for an Alcubierre micro-warp. The implication is that these quanta in virtual guise could, in principle, establish a neutral acceleration regime within 10^-17 centimeters of every electron and quark, just as virtual photons (in a larger radius) modify other physical properties of these particles, as proscribed by QED.

Oscillations of these quantas' fields are proposed to be the source of deBroglie (matter) waves. In this view the lobelike 3D complexity of electron orbits would result from periodic amplitude variations of the component fields of these quanta. Since the magnitude and direction of angular acceleration an electron experiences in a complex orbit is always changing, it follows that the component fields of these postulated quanta must be synchronized with the orbital dynamics for the orbit to retain stability. In the stable condition the electron would, accordingly, be locally (~10^-17 cm.) in a state of 'freefall'; like an astronaut orbiting the earth, provided the vector representing the dipole field of this quanta is always aligned with the axis defined by the line between the orbiting electron and its nucleus. An electron devoid of acceleration in freefall will not radiate by the laws of electrodynamics.

Atoms can absorb or emit radiation spontaneously, or be stimulated to do so by an external agency. One might wonder, then, if during the emission or absorption process the presumed disengagement of the dipole gravitational field of these quanta from their function of shielding electrons (and corresponding quarks) from angular acceleration moments, could result in coupling to the terrestrial gravity field. For this to happen, the dipole warp fields of millions of these virtual quanta would need to be in spatial alignment and all at the same phase in their wave cycle. An additional requirement would be for the emission or absorption process to be prolonged beyond the few pico-seconds that characterizes orbital transitions. The first two requirements might be satisfied by the coherent conditions intrinsic to superconductors. The third requirement might be achieved by external "pumping" to produce a population inversion as in a laser. In this respect, it's interesting to note that Evgeny Podkletnov reported up to 2% shielding of the Earth's field in a high temperature superconductor irradiated with microwaves. Since the gravity mimicking field of these postulated quanta are 39 magnitudes stronger than Newtonian gravity, 2% of the Earth's field would correspond to only 2 parts in 10⁴¹ of the full strength of this field.

The source of these quanta is based on a postulated duality between the forces of gravity and electromagnetism at the supersymmetry (SUSY) scale, which manifests as a mapping of each force?s variables into the other force?s structure (see Light/Matter Duality). Such a duality constitutes a direct linear extrapolation of electric-magnetic duality. This electromagnetic-gravity duality gives birth to two new forces: (1) A force obeying Maxwell?s equations, but with length and time variables in place of electric and magnetic variables, and (2) A force conforming to the precepts of General Relativistic gravity (Lorentz transforms, Poincare symmetry group, etc.), but with electric and magnetic parameters, rather than space (length) and time. The respective quanta, ?photon? and ?graviton?, for these forces would necessarily be massive (SUSY regime; 1-100 TeV). This great mass would constrain the action radius of these forces to a mere 10^-17 - 10^-19 centimeters in our universe. Tentatively, its speculated that these quanta correspond to the photino and gravitino of SUSY theory.

It?s proposed that these forces naturally reside on a 3+1 (3 electric, 1 magnetic) "brane" physically close to ours in the higher dimensional ?bulk?. Within this brane the quanta of these two forces would be massless, and the laws of physics identical to ours, from the perspective of an observer composed of the unique matter of this brane. A propagating length-time Maxwell wave in this mirror brane would simply be their version of light, microwaves, etc. But from our perspective such a wave would expand and contract our metric in a cyclical fashion, with an intensity 10³⁹ times stronger than the influence of ordinary matter (ratio of strength between electromagnetism and gravity). An observer (from our universe, and in our universe) entrained at a maxima node of a length-time Maxwell wave would perceive the metric immediately to his front (1/4 wavelength) to be continuously contracting, while within 1/4 wavelength to his rear it would be continuously expanding. This is the metric signature of an Alcubierre warp, which establishes a null acceleration zone at its core, even as the whole disturbance is in a state of acceleration.

Since the length-time Maxwell quanta is massive in our universe (1-100 TeV) the entrained observer would, in reality, perceive a microscopic (10^-17 ? 10^-19 cm.) warp field. As it happens, a micro-warp is the only viable version of a warp field, since a macro-sized warp would require unphysical amounts of energy (Van Den Broeck, 1999). Replace the ?observer? with an electron, and a force becomes available that is capable of exactly counter-balancing angular acceleration moments on orbital electrons subject to the coulomb potential in atoms. Assuming these SUSY ?photons? are present as vacuum entities at the core of electrons, they would establish a free fall state for orbital electrons, within a 10^-17 to 10^-19 cm. reference frame, provided the oscillations of the SUSY photons are in step with the dynamical parameters of the orbit. It's proposed that the oscillating fields of these SUSY photons correspond to the "internal periodic phenomena" intrinsic to all fundamental particles, predicted by Louis deBroglie in 1923.

A further ramification of these postulated SUSY photons is that all fundamental particles (electrons, quarks, etc.), in our universe, would be subject to forward/backward translations in time. This would stem from volumetric oscillations within the warp ?bubbles? during the expansion and contraction cycles of the length-time wave. With 10³⁹ times the influence on the metric as ordinary matter, extreme curvatures of space, both negative and positive, would be realized within the warp ?bubbles?. This would translate to a volume of space much larger than the bounded region seen from the outside at the peak of the expansion cycle. During the contraction period of the wave, it?s proposed this volume of space exits our brane and expands into the higher dimensional ?bulk?. The net result is that every fundamental particle will see every other particle advancing and receding in its relative position. This, in turn, will induce bi-polar relativistic sync shifts (relativity of simultaneity) so every particle will perceive every other particle oscillating between the past and future at its characteristic deBroglie frequency, but averaging to the local present. The probabilistic nature of the quantum realm would stem from these temporal excursions. See Mach's Principle

Since there is no limit to the rate at which space can expand and contract, effective superluminal translations in distance between fundamental particles might occur. It?s proposed, therefore, that a Bose-Einstein condensate is possible since particles in the condensate, are distributed just far enough apart on their common deBroglie matter wave to be spacelike separated. They, consequently, would not ?feel? one another?s electrostatic fields, and mutual repulsion would not tear the ensemble apart. See Like Charge Attraction as Function of 'Time'

Because of the exact symmetry between our brane and the EM-gravity dual brane, our photon would play the same role in the quantum realm of the dual brane as its photon plays in ours. Since only three forces exist at the SUSY scale - electroweak, gravity, strong - it's speculated that exactly six major dualities can occur between these forces by the permutation rule N!, where N=3. It's conjectured that these six dualities correspond to the five 10 dimensional string theories, and 11 dimensional supergravity that form the tableau of M-theory. It's assumed that the EM-gravity duality is nested within the electroweak-gravity duality. See The Field Interchange Hypothesis

References

1. N.. Arkani-Hamed, S. Dimopoulos, G. Dvali, Phys. Lett. B 429, 263 (1998).

2. L. Randall, R. Sundrum, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 3370 (1999).

"In Search of Extra Dimensions"

"Once-bizarre Concept of Extra Dimensions Showing Hints of Scientific Revolution"

Radioactive elements, and their isotopes, emit alpha, beta, and gamma particles. The alpha particles are simply helium nucleii stripped of their electron retinue, beta particle are energetic electrons, while gamma particles are the most energetic variety of photons.